Ibn ‘Arabi interprets the Mi‘raj through his metaphysics of wahdat al-wujud (the Unity of Being). For him, Mi‘raj is not a departure from the world, but a movement through different levels of Divine self-disclosure. In his Futuhat al-Makkiyya (The Meccan Revelations), he writes that the Prophet’s Mi‘raj was unique because it involved both body and spirit, yet that every believer has their own inner Mi‘raj, a journey of consciousness from captivity to form toward recognition of the Divine presence in all things. 

Sidrat al-Muntaha, the boundary to which the Prophet ascends, represents for Ibn ‘Arabi the limit of discursive knowledge. Here reason ends and direct knowing (ma‘rifa) begins. God is not encountered through concepts, but through a transformation of perception. In this sense, Mi‘raj is a process in which the ego (nafs) is not destroyed but illuminated, becoming a mirror of Divine reality. 

Fariduddin Attar, author of The Conference of the Birds (Mantiq al-Tayr), sees Mi‘raj through the dynamics of annihilation (fana) and return (baqa). In his symbolism, the birds who seek the Simurgh pass through seven valleys, corresponding to the seven heavens of the Mi‘raj. Each valley represents the loss of an illusion about the self: the valley of seeking, the valley of love, the valley of knowledge, the valley of separation, the valley of unity, the valley of bewilderment, and finally the valley of self-annihilation (fana).  

Like the Prophet on the Mi‘raj, the traveler must lose all identities in order to arrive at the truth of the self. Attar thus teaches: “You do not reach God by ascending, but by ceasing to be the one who thinks he is ascending.” Mi‘raj is therefore the night in which power dissolves into humility. 

Jalaluddin Rumi understands Mi‘raj through cosmic love. The Prophet does not go to God to gain something, but because love itself is movement. In the Masnavi, Rumi writes: 

“Your body is a donkey, your soul its rider. If you do not know where you are going, even the Mi‘raj will not help you.” 

Rumi warns that external ascension without inner transformation is an illusion. The true Mi‘raj happens when the heart becomes wide enough to hold both God and humanity. That is why the Prophet returns from the Mi‘raj, because Love does not remain in ecstasy but returns to the world to heal, teach, and draw people closer to one another and to God. 

Mi‘raj as Return 

Mi‘raj is therefore not an escape from the world, but a return to the world with a transformed vision. It does not teach us how to leave people, but how to be with them without violence, without domination, without illusion about the self, which is the most difficult task of all. 

The Night Journey (Isra) begins in Mecca and leads to Jerusalem. For Sufis, this symbolizes the movement from the center of identity to the place of wounded holiness. Jerusalem is the place where revelations, empires, armies, and prayers collide, just as the human heart is where fear and hope, power and vulnerability, ego and love collide. Isra is thus a journey through our inner Jerusalems, the parts of us occupied by fear. 

When the heavenly steed Buraq carries the Prophet through the seven heavens, Sufis interpret these as states of consciousness: 

 the heaven of the body.  

the heaven of desire.  

the heaven of fear,  

the heaven of reason.  

the heaven of intuition,  

the heaven of love.  

the heaven of surrender 

At each level the Prophet meets other prophets, but in Sufi interpretation these are his own matured spiritual aspects. When he reaches Sidrat al-Muntaha, where even the angels cannot go, it means that knowledge, power, and form cannot go further, but Love can. 

The most radical message of the Mi‘raj, as Sufis tell us, is the return. The Prophet did not remain in Divine proximity, he returned. Likewise, the true Sufi is not the one who goes to God, but the one who returns to people with a transformed heart. That is why the first command that comes from the Mi‘raj is not an esoteric secret but prayer (salat), not as a mere ritual, but as a daily Mi‘raj of body and consciousness. Every prayer is a small attempt to escape the tyranny of time and return to presence. 

Poem: The Night When the Heart Ascends 

O Beloved, 
if the heavens are too far for our tired feet, 
lift our gaze 
so that at least the sky in our eyes 
may begin its Mi‘raj. 

If the world is too heavy 
for our fragile shoulders, 
remove from us hatred 
like dust from the soul, 
so that we may once again feel 
how beautiful it is to love. 

We do not ask for Buraq’s wings, 
but for the silence 
in which Your Beautiful Names 
can be reflected. 

Make our hearts 
not temples of stone 
but nests 
where Your mercy 
is not afraid to land. 

Come, 
not as a judge, 
but as a dream 
that drives away fear. 

Wrap Yourself in our prayer 
like light in a candle, 
like breath in the chest, 
like love that does not ask 
whether it is deserved. 

For only a heart 
that dares to be soft and vulnerable 
knows 
what the true Mi‘raj 
looks like. 

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Women have played a significant role in the development of Buddhism, yet their contributions remain largely unrecognized in the context of women’s spirituality. Among them, Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī, the Buddha’s aunt and teacher, stands out as the first woman admitted to the Buddhist monastic order. Her monastic engagement raises numerous questions about the role of women in Buddhist history: Who were the first Buddhist women? How did they shape monastic life? What traces of their legacy remain? How do women today contribute to shaping the spiritual landscape within Buddhist communities? This text explores the life and spiritual legacy of Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī and the first women who embarked on the Buddhist path, highlighting their enduring impact on the Buddhist tradition from its beginnings to the present day. Special attention is given to women’s contributions to spiritual practices, emphasizing the significance of their experiences in shaping Buddhist philosophy and spirituality.

Buddha and buddhism

Gautama Siddhartha, the enlightened teacher and founder of Buddhism, was born around 563 BCE in the region that now borders India and Nepal, into a Kshatriya family that had amassed wealth through the rice trade (Rahula, 2000). According to historical sources, Siddhartha was shielded from poverty and suffering due to his privileged status. However, upon encountering the harsh realities of the outside world, he was compelled to abandon his life of luxury and embark on a spiritual quest.

In his pursuit of true understanding, he withdrew to the forest, where he joined ascetics dedicated to fasting, purification, and meditation. By synthesizing insights from the Upanishads, Samkhya, Jainism, and Yoga, he formulated the fundamental principles of Buddhism, known as the Four Noble Truths (Zdravković, 2012: 23). These truths state that (1) life is characterized by suffering (dukkha); (2) the cause of suffering is craving and attachment (samudaya); (3) suffering can be overcome by extinguishing craving (nirodha); and (4) liberation from suffering is attained by following the Noble Eightfold Path (magga), which encompasses right understanding, right action, and meditation (Rahula, 2000). His teachings attracted numerous followers, leading to the formation of the first Buddhist monastic order. The Buddha passed away at the age of eighty, most likely due to food poisoning.

Buddhism can be described as a complex system of thought that functions as a philosophy, a spiritual practice, a way of life, and an institutionalized religion. Over the centuries, it evolved into three main branches: Theravāda, the oldest form of Buddhism, which is based on the Pali Canon and emphasizes monastic life and individual enlightenment; Mahāyāna, which promotes the ideal of the bodhisattva—a being who postpones personal enlightenment to assist others; and Vajrayāna, often associated with Tibetan Buddhism, which incorporates esoteric practices and highlights the role of spiritual teachers (Gombrich, 1988).

Obstacles Did Not Halt the Monastic Mission

Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī (Sanskrit: महाप्रजापति गौतमी; Pali: Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī), also known as Prajāpatī, was the first woman to request ordination directly from Gautama Buddha, making her the first formally ordained female monastic among the bhikkhunī—Buddhist nuns (Chodron, 2024). In addition to her role as the founder of the female monastic order, Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī also played a significant part in the Buddha’s early life as his caregiver. After the passing of his biological mother, Mahāmāyā (Maya), she assumed maternal responsibility for the young Siddhartha Gautama, providing him with a stable and secure family environment during his childhood and upbringing. As the sister of the Buddha’s biological mother, their familial bond was further deepened, leaving lasting spiritual implications (Zdravković, 2012: 23).

A study by Bhikkhu Anālayo, a professor at the Asia-Africa Institute of the University of Hamburg, provides a thorough examination of the founding history of the Buddhist nuns’ order. His book, The Foundation History of the Nuns’ Order (2021), published as part of the Hamburg Buddhist Studies series, builds upon his previous works, such as The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal (2010) and The Dawn of Abhidharma (2014). Anālayo’s analysis of canonical sources in Chinese, Pali, Sanskrit, and Tibetan offers an in-depth exploration of Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī’s monastic journey, emphasizing her determination and commitment.

Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī played a crucial role in advocating for gender equality within monastic life. Despite the rigid norms of the time, which regarded women as less capable of spiritual progress, she did not waver in the face of obstacles but persisted in her request. After being denied three times, the Buddha eventually granted her request, leading to the establishment of the Buddhist nuns’ order. Together with a group of women from the royal family, Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī shaved her head, donned monastic robes, and adopted monastic customs, demonstrating her unwavering dedication to the Dhamma[1]—the Buddha’s teachings and the spiritual law (Anālayo, 2021).

Monastic Life

Despite the initial rejections, Gautamī did not waver. At that moment, the intervention of Ānanda, the Buddha’s most devoted disciple, became crucial. Ānanda presented two undeniable arguments: first, a personal one, reminding the Buddha of Gautamī’s vital role in his upbringing, and second, one based on the idea of spiritual equality, questioning whether a woman could attain enlightenment. The Buddha responded affirmatively. Based on these arguments, he ultimately agreed to the establishment of the nuns’ order, but on the condition that they accept the eight gurudharma rules. These rules imposed specific restrictions on women within the monastic community, ensuring their subordination to monks. Namely, nuns were not allowed to advise monks on matters of spiritual practice, nor could they introduce new customs or regulations without monastic approval. Additionally, they were required to respect senior monks, regardless of their own spiritual maturity, while their leadership within the community was limited, as they were not permitted to oversee monastic administration. Furthermore, nuns could not own personal property and were obligated to surrender their assets to the community. Special provisions were also made to ensure their protection from external threats, particularly those arising outside the monastic order. Although women were deemed spiritually capable of attaining enlightenment, their social standing remained inferior to that of monks, and they were required to strictly adhere to monastic discipline and customs, often under greater scrutiny than their male counterparts (Anālayo, 2021).

Nevertheless, the establishment of the nuns’ order marked a historical breakthrough, granting women active participation in the monastic community. Gautamī’s determination and Ānanda’s intervention were pivotal moments in Buddhist history, as they provided women with the opportunity to become spiritual transmitters of the Buddha’s teachings, laying the foundation for the spread of Buddhism among all people, regardless of gender. The Buddha’s approval represented a significant step in the evolution of Buddhism—not only as a religious tradition but also as a system that, despite obstacles, allowed women to engage in spiritual life. This decision undoubtedly provoked resistance in society, as well as unease within the male monastic communities (Sirimanne, 2016). Although the Buddha was not a social reformer in the modern sense, his decision to include women in monastic life had a profound impact on the religious and social dynamics of his time.

According to numerous traditions, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī is attributed with performing supernatural feats, including multiplying and reintegrating her own image, vanishing and reappearing, and passing through walls and mountains. It is also said that she caused the simultaneous appearance of six suns, releasing immense thermal energy into the atmosphere. Following these events, tradition holds that the Buddha granted Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī and her nuns entry into Nirvana, accompanied by his blessing. The Buddha escorted Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī to the monastery gates, where she paid him her final respects by kissing his feet. Upon returning to the monastery, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī and 500 nuns began their preparations for Nirvana. News of their impending departure attracted numerous local followers, who came to pay their last respects. After bidding farewell to those gathered, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī and her followers withdrew into meditation, and, according to tradition, they attained Nirvana (Horner, 1975; Blackstone, 1998).

Spiritual motherhood

The scholar, Dharma teacher, and writer Wendy Garling has extensively explored key moments in the spiritual life of Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī. In her biography Women Who Raised Buddha (2021), Garling portrays her life journey through the roles of sister, queen, mother, and nun, drawing on fragments from legends, myths, and canonical texts.

Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī is also mentioned as one of the central figures in Women in the History of Philosophy and Sciences (2023), a work that explores the philosophical views of 22 women outside the Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian cultural spheres.[2] Her life, devoted to spiritual freedom and inner balance, served as an example for Siddhartha Gotami, who later chose to leave his luxurious aristocratic life in search of spiritual meaning. According to K. R. Blackstone in Women in the Footsteps of the Buddha: Struggle for Liberation in the Therīgāthā (1998), Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī was not only a mother but also a stable moral figure who showed Siddhartha the importance of spiritual life and the “healing” of dependency on material goods.

Details from the lives of the first nuns

The Buddhist order of nuns (bhikkhunī-saṁgha) is one of the oldest monastic communities and movements for the emancipation of women. It is the central theme of the monograph Buddhist Nuns: The Birth and Development of a Women’s Monastic Order by Mohan Wijayaratne (2010). The history of this order dates back to the fifth century BCE, a period of intense spiritual changes in the Ganges Valley, when alternative traditions emerged that challenged Brahmanical clericalism. Based on Buddhist canonical sources, Wijayaratne explores the development of the nuns’ order and the broader context of female asceticism in ancient India. In this process, the author further emphasizes other female ascetic communities, which also played a role in shaping the spiritual life of that period. In addition to Buddhist nuns, the author also describes other female ascetic communities, such as the Paribbājikā (community of Paribbājakas), Ájīvikā (community of Ájīvikas, led by Makkhali Gosāla), and Jain nuns who followed Jina Mahāvīra (Nigaṁṭha Nāthaputta). The text also mentions ascetic women who lived outside formal communities, either independently, in smaller groups, or with ascetic husbands. These communities not only provide insight into the spiritual practices of women during this time but also illustrate the broader cultural and societal context in which women sought to find their life path in a patriarchal society.

Similarly, the story of Princess Sumedhā from the city of Mantāvatī describes the challenges women faced in patriarchal societies, as well as their resistance to these norms through spirituality. Her example is not just a historical anecdote but symbolizes a broader social phenomenon. When Sumedhā decided to become a nun, her parents, who had already arranged her marriage, opposed her wish. Although everyone around her considered family life the natural path, Sumedhā chose to persevere. To demonstrate the seriousness of her intention, she cut off her hair and threw it before her parents and fiancé. Only then did her parents allow her to become a nun. Sumedhā, along with other nuns (Cálā, Úpacálā, and Sisúpacálā), rejected a life based on the established tradition that denied women the right to make their own choices, especially in the context of arranged marriages (Wijayaratne, 2010: 27). The entry of these women into monastic life was not only an act of spiritual dedication but also an affirmation of their identity, through meditation and religious practice, which enabled them to gain autonomy and redefine their social roles. Nuns like Anopāmā, who left her family’s property, and Sele, who attained inner peace through meditation, demonstrate how spirituality became a path of resistance to patriarchal norms. Stories like Sumedhā’s clearly show how spiritual life provided women with space for personal freedom. By rejecting worldly pleasures, they preserved their spiritual identity.

The Buddhist nun, scholar, and activist Karma Lekshe Tsomo[3] highlights four areas in which Buddhist women faced obstacles on their spiritual path. The first area concerns religious practice, including life customs, opportunities for teaching, meditation practices, and institutional structures. Although many of these opportunities are regularly available to laypeople and monks, they are rarely accessible to nuns. The second issue relates to the disciplinary rules that regulate the monastic life of nuns, clearly placing them in an inferior position compared to monks. Third, although Buddhist doctrine recognizes women’s ability to achieve enlightenment, this achievement is often denied recognition in terms of titles and status (Tsomo, 1999). For example, the term arhat (a person who has achieved enlightenment and liberation from samsara, the cycle of birth and death) is rarely used for women, and in Mahayana Buddhism, the term bodhisattva (a being who seeks enlightenment but delays entering nirvana out of compassion to help all beings achieve enlightenment) is rarely bestowed upon women (Gross, 1993). The greatest contribution of Buddhism to ancient Indian civilization was the radical idea that all people, regardless of caste, origin, or status, have equal spiritual value (before the source or God, we are all the same). This principle holds particular significance for women, who were traditionally excluded from religious rituals and the study of the Vedas (Halkias, 2013: 494). Despite progress, many Buddhist communities still have institutional barriers that hinder the full inclusion of women in all aspects of Buddhism.

A look into the future toward achieving equality

Although certain improvements have been made in the status of Buddhist nuns in recent decades, many obstacles arising from patriarchal structures still guide their path toward spiritual equality. Despite the progress made, the status of women within the Buddhist hierarchy remains uncertain, and their full inclusion in all aspects of spiritual practice continues to face challenges. According to Gross (2013), systematic research on gender and Buddhism only began in the 1980s, and she highlights four key areas that require further investigation. The first and most important is the need for data collection about women within Buddhism, as many Western Buddhists are unaware of the deep male dominance within these traditions. The second challenge concerns the restoration of full dedication of women in certain parts of the Buddhist world. Third, Western Buddhists (who convert to Buddhism) face the question of how to live as Buddhists in a non-Buddhist culture, while the fourth challenge points to the historical lack of female teachers and leaders within Buddhist traditions (Gross, 2013: 667).

In this context, Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī, the historical figure who made it possible for women to enter the monastic life, serves as a powerful source of motivation and inspiration for women. Her work in establishing women’s monastic communities was revolutionary in its essence because it not only enabled women access to meditation and learning but also laid the foundations for spiritual seeking within the Buddhist tradition. Regardless of gender, Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī directed women toward spiritual transformation. Women around the world can draw inspiration from her life, especially in the context of spiritual aspirations, as she represents an example of perseverance and determination in overcoming gender and social barriers. This aspect of her legacy also points to the importance of gender balance and equality, which are crucial for building egalitarian communities.

Despite the progress made, numerous challenges within Buddhist communities, such as patriarchal prejudices and reduced opportunities for women in education and rituals, indicate the need for further institutional reforms. True progress toward egalitarianism in the Buddhist environment depends on reducing these prejudices and encouraging structural changes that provide women with greater opportunities to actively participate in all aspects of Buddhist life, including leading communities and performing rituals. Only through these changes can an environment be created in which women have the same opportunities as monks, thus enabling full equality in spiritual practices.

LITERATURE

Anālayo, B. (2010), The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal, Hamburg: Hamburg Buddhist Studies.

Anālayo, B. (2014), The Dawn of Abhidharma, Hamburg: Hamburg Buddhist Studies.

Anālayo, B. (2021), The Foundation History of the Order of Buddhist Nuns, Hamburg: Hamburg Buddhist Studies.

Anālayo, B. (2011). “Mahāpajāpati’s Going Forth in the Madhyama Āgama,” Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 18, 268–317. https://doi.org/10.5840/jbe20111815 (accessed 19. 1. 2025).

Arai, P. (1999), Zen Women: Beyond the Feminist Critique. In K. L. Tsomo (Ed.), Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations (pp. 277–289), State University of New York Press.

Blackstone, K. R. (1998). Women in the Footsteps of the Buddha: Struggle for Liberation in the Therīgāthā, Curzon Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781136805769

Chodron, B. T. (2024). A New Possibility: Introducing Full Ordination for Women into the Tibetan Buddhist Tradition, available at http://www.congress-on-buddhist-women.org/index.php?id=30 (accessed 19. 1. 2024).

Garling, W. (2021), The Woman Who Raised the Buddha: The Extraordinary Life of Mahāprajāpati, Foreword by H.H. the Fourteenth Dalai Lama.

Gethin, R. (1998), The Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gombrich, R. (1988), Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo, New York: Routledge.

Gross, R. (1999), Feminism, Lay Buddhism, and the Future of Buddhism. In K. L. Tsomo (Ed.), Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations (pp. 277–289). Albany: State University of New York Press.

Gross, R. M. (2013), Buddhist Perspectives on Gender Issues. In S. M. Emmanuel (Ed.), A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Halkias, G. T. (2013), The Enlightened Sovereign: Buddhism and Kingship in India and Tibet. In S. M. Emmanuel (Ed.), A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Horner, I. B. (1975), Women under Primitive Buddhism: Laywomen and Almswomen, Motilal Banarsidass.

Monge Sanz, J. (2024), The Wheel of Dharma: Symbolism and Teaching in Buddhism, Postposm. https://www.postposm.com/budizam-kotac-dharme-simbolizam-i-ucenje-u-budizmu (accessed 25. 1. 2025).

Rahula, V. (2000), What the Buddha Taught (B. Kovačević, Trans.), Belgrade: Theravada Buddhist Society Middle Path, available at http://www.yu-budizam.com/srednjiput (accessed 20. 1. 2025).

Tsomo, K. L. (1999), Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations, Albany: State University of New York Press.

Waithe, M. E., Dykeman, T. B. (Eds.). (2023), Women Philosophers from Non-Western Traditions: The First Four Thousand Years, Cleveland: Cleveland State University.

Wijayaratna, M. (Ed.). (2010), Buddhist Nuns: The Birth and Development of a Women’s Monastic Order, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society Inc.

Zdravković, H. (2012), Buddhism, First edition, Belgrade. Available at https://www.academia.edu/91581341/BUDIZAM (accessed 20. 1. 2025).

[1] The Dharma Wheel symbolizes the path to enlightenment and liberation from suffering, representing the fundamental principles of Buddhist teachings. It consists of three key components: the rim, which symbolizes discipline, uniting all aspects of Buddhist practice into a coherent whole; the spokes, which represent the Noble Eightfold Path, a guide to an ethical, wise, and compassionate life; and the hub, which signifies concentration, essential for attaining enlightenment and liberation. As a whole, the Dharma Wheel reflects an integrated approach that connects discipline, ethical values, and concentration on the path of spiritual development (cf. Monge Sanz, 2024).

[2] The list of women philosophers includes figures from various parts of the world, including Mesopotamia, India, Tibet, China, Korea, Japan, Australia, America, the Philippines, and Nigeria. The book covers philosophical thought that has shaped philosophy from its very beginnings up to the mid-20th century, encompassing ideas from early and late historical periods, the Middle Ages, and the modern era. The women philosophers featured in the book belonged to diverse philosophical traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Zen Buddhism, and Sufism. The book’s authors, Mary Ellen Waithe and Therese Boos Dykeman, provide a detailed exploration of their philosophical perspectives, the foundations of their schools of thought, and accompany their analyses with translations of their writing.

[3] As a professor at San Diego University, the author has published works exploring the challenges women face in accessing religious practices, education, and leadership. Her research focuses on strengthening women’s rights, reforming institutional regulations, and promoting gender equality in Buddhist communities. She actively raises awareness of historical and cultural barriers with the goal of creating a more equitable space for women in Buddhism and contributes to reforms that ensure their greater autonomy and recognition in religious life.

The post The Legacy of Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī and the First Buddhist Nuns: The Foundation of Women’s Spirituality in Buddhism appeared first on FER ŠKOLA.

In the aftermath of the Holocaust horrors, when the Jewish communities in Bosnia and Herzegovina resumed their activities once again, a need to form a Jewish women’s organization arose.   The first Jewish Woman organization in Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed in 1946, with the establishment of the Women’s Section of the Sarajevo Jewish Community.  This dire period demanded maximum engagement from every single Jewish female and male in the process of reorganization of the depopulated communities. The first fundamental task was providing assistance to male and female survivors returning from concentration camps and refuge, as well as the infrastructure reconstruction of the communities.  In accordance with the traditions of the period women were mainly engaged in programs concerning social protection – aiding the ailing and the elderly, especially the war orphans. The Women’s Section thus organized the reception of war orphans and their accommodation in new families and homes. Summer camps were also organized in which women volunteered as instructors, teachers, cooks, doctors and nurses.

After the decline of the requirement for special engagement in caretaking of endangered community members, the women moved on to different activities so their new task was the organization of common festivities during Jewish holydays as well as other events significant both to Jewish communities worldwide and in Bosnia and Herzegovina.  The Women’s Section contribution was significant, especially in regard to organization and work done with children and the youth in nourishing stronger Jewish identity and dedication  to Jewish values. Through the organization of numerous lectures, literary manifestations, art exhibitions and such similar events  the Women’s Section was actively participating in the promotion of Jewish culture and art, both amid the Jewish population and the Bosnian society in general.

In 1992 an atrocious war begins in Bosnia and Herzegovina which lasted nearly four years. Sarajevo was under siege for 1335 days, or 44 months.  When we mention the siege of Sarajevo we must bear in mind that a city of 400.000 citizens was completely cut off from the rest of the world – without running water, electricity, gas and telephone connections, without road or railway communication, and under daily artillery barrages and sniper fire. The Sarajevo Jewish Community had to completely reorganize its agenda and adjust to the newly risen situation in order to help its members in relieving the horrific conditions under which the city tried to survive.  The Women’s Section under the guidance of Mrs. Sonja Elazar provided an immeasurable contribution to a well-run and efficient organization of various activities in the Sarajevo Jewish Community. During the period the Women’s Section of the Sarajevo Jewish Community gets its name and thus becomes the “Bohorete” Women’s Section.  The name was acquired from Laura Papo Bohoreta, a female writer and educator, who wrote in Judeo-Espanol – the language of the Bosnian and Herzegovinian Sephardic Jews, and who left an immensely valuable collection of short stories, poems and theatrical acts, along with the important research “The Sephardic Woman in Bosnia”.

The “Bohoretes” were engaged in arranging a convoy, organized by the Sarajevo Jewish Community, with which children and the elderly left the besieged city.  For those ailing and elderly members wishing not to leave their homes, the women formed a team which provided these people with the necessary help and care. They organized daily visits, bringing food from the kitchen of the Jewish Cultural-Educational and Humanitarian Society “La Benevolencija”, provided them with water and much needed medicines, they made sure that the elderly would receive medical care and treatment from the doctors and nurses working in the “La Benevolencija’s” clinic, and provided them with mail and messages coming into the city through various channels. A social service organized in this manner was the foundation for the subsequent establishment of an extensive program aiming to aid the elderly and needy – “LA Benevolencija Home Care Program”, which operates even today.  It is interesting to point out that very quickly the program beneficiaries included also various citizens of Sarajevo and not necessarily of Jewish background.  The “Bohoretes” took care of the distribution of the various donations such as clothes and other goods which were arriving to the Sarajevo Jewish Community due to the efforts of “La Benevolencija”. 

Children who stayed in besieged Sarajevo were amongst the most imperiled citizen groups in the city. Amongst the various activities of the “Bohorete” Women’s Section, Mrs. Elazar took care to organize the “Sunday School”, and the first teachers and instructors were “Bohorete” members.  The children gathered in the premises of the Sarajevo Jewish Community, were they learned about Jewish history and tradition, socialized and played.  For these children spending time in the Jewish Community was the only possibility to get out of apartments and basement shelters in which they, because of the constant barrage and continuous sniper fire, spent most of their time. The “Sunday School” gathers children even today, and in 2012 will mark its 25 years of existence.

The “Bohorete” had branches in Makarska and Split, Croatia, where a significant number of Jewish refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina found shelter. The activities of the Women’s Section were coordinated by the Jewish Community of  Split along with La Benevolencija’s logistical center also located in Split. “Bohorete”  in Makarska and Split , with the help  of local Jewish women, continued  caring for the elderly, organizing gatherings, visits and Jewish activities. Under the guidance of Mrs. Lenka Bilalagić, women from Sarajevo and Split gathered under the name “Menora” and produced crocheted kippot  which were distributed  by JDC throughout the world. This was a way for Jewish refugee women from Bosnia and Herzegovina to earn some pocket money.  Along with the kippa which was embroidered with the “Menora” sign in the world went the story about the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, about the siege of Sarajevo, and also about the activities of the Jewish Community of Sarajevo, the Jewish Cultural-Educational and Humanitarian Society “La Benevolencija” as well as about the “Bohorete”. “Bohorete” become the member of ICJW in 1994.

After the war the Sarajevo Jewish Community, the Jewish Cultural-Educational and Humanitarian Society “La Benevolencija” and the Jewish Community of Bosnia and Herzegovina continued with their efforts even more intensively. Even though the armed conflict has ceased and death under shelling were no longer a threat, a normal life in the war-stricken country and devastated society was not established in full capacity for a long period of time. Accordingly, during a certain period of time some of the activities which the “Bohorete” initiated during the war were operational. Nevertheless, as the time moved on and the general situation normalized, the “Bohorete” were shifting their focus. With the current President – Mrs. Nela Levi, the “Bohorete” shifted the majority of its activities from humanitarian and social programs to the organization of community life in peacetime conditions. Apart from their traditional duty of organizing Jewish festivities, and commemorating various important dates in Jewish history, they participate in the organization of various cultural manifestations which have a broader social importance.  In this regard it is important to underline the regular participation in the organization of The European Day of Jewish Culture, the commemoration of January 27^th – the International Holocaust Commemoration Day, participation in the organization of “Evenings of Sephardic Cuisine” which traditionally take place during the Sarajevo summer festivities, as well as the organization of numerous concerts, exhibitions, poetry meetings, lectures, film projections organized by “La Benevolencija”, etc. Members of the “Bohorete” as representatives of the Jewish Community of Bosnia and Herzegovina are members of the Women’s Group of the Interreligious Council of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is important to stress that the “Bohorete” conduct intensive activity in regard to the strengthening and development of international relations and accordingly organize twice a year meetings with representatives of women’s groups of various national and religious organizations.

The women are full and equal members in the leadership of the Jewish Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and as presidents and members of several communities have an impact on the policies of the Jewish Community of BiH and its promotion in the society.

The Union of Jewish Woman in Bosnia and Herzegovina was also formed and its members are comprised of Jewish women from six Bosnian and Herzegovinian Jewish communities. The President of the Union of Jewish Woman in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Mrs. Rahela Džidić, produced an educational program of seminars for Jewish women. In cooperation with the “Bohorete” a series of seminars were organized, specifically from 2006 until today 11 seminars were organized discussing themes such as the role of the woman in a Jewish community, and the position of women in society in general.  It is important to point out that the JDC has enabled the organization of these seminars with its financial assistance. Jewish women in Bosnia and Herzegovina actively participate in all Jewish social gatherings which take place in the region of South East Europe, but also in the work of ICJW conferences within the financial possibilities of their respective communities.

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Many traditional believers from the Abrahamic religions might view this as blasphemy, which, at the very least, could lead to ostracism and, quite likely, full excommunication. To prevent such a reaction, let’s first ask ourselves a basic and logical question: If God is God—YHVH according to the Old Testament or Allah according to the Qur’an—then, as the cause of all existence, does that Someone even have gender? Does the being who is the cause of everything, who is self-sufficient and exists independently, need to have a gender at all?

If God is a being who exists independently, needing neither food, drink, nor a partner, and is the source of all creation, and if, as the Bible says, He created man “in His own image and likeness” and “male and female He created them,” or as the Qur’an teaches, “He created everything in pairs”—then isn’t it unnecessary to discuss God’s gender?

If God created both male and female “in His own image and likeness,” doesn’t that already tell us enough about God’s nature? Is there anything more to explain?

If we accept this, I would argue that God is both male and female—and even beyond that. He created us with genders so that we might clearly understand our own insufficiency and dependence on one another. We cannot accomplish anything alone, whether in private or social life. We are not self-sufficient. In everything, we depend on God, the only being who is complete and whole. To grow closer to God, who is the source of all existence, we must live in harmony and cooperation with one another.

In every aspect of life, we are created to be dependent on each other. Our interdependence has nothing to do with our sex or gender, except in procreation. Take, for example, your morning routine: even something as simple as brushing your teeth depends on the person who produced the toothpaste, the one who transported it to the store, and the one who sold it to you—none of which depends on the gender of those individuals. Similarly, we depend on the people who produced the food we eat for breakfast, the car we drive to work, and the medical professionals who treat us if we’re involved in an accident on the way.

Admit to yourself that in none of these aspects of life does the sex, gender, or sexual orientation of those people matter to you. The only thing that matters is that they do their job well enough to keep you healthy and safe.

Therefore, the far more important question than “What is God’s gender?” or “Does God even have a gender?” is this:

“What is God’s essence, and what can I do to draw closer to God’s will?”

I believe that our interdependence speaks far more loudly about what God desires from us and how we can please Him. I believe it conveys a powerful message.

Who is willing to listen?

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The second day of the “And You, Sister, Speak!” conference commenced with the panel “Female Faces of Martyrdom,” featuring presentations by Prof. Dr. Asja Demiragić and Prof. Dr. Jasmina Husanović. The session, which included discussions with the participants, was moderated by Dr. Amra Pandžo.

From the outset, it became evident that the concept of martyrdom and the notion of a “holy” life, irrespective of the religious tradition, share similar characteristics and essentially the same definition. In the Christian tradition, the term “martyr” (Latin: martyr, Greek: μάρτυς) signifies a witness, and in the Islamic tradition, a martyr also denotes a witness of faith—someone who sacrifices their life to bear witness to and spread the word of God. Given that both religious traditions discussed by the professors have a multitude of martyrs, it is apparent that the lives and teachings of these figures manifest in various forms. However, the core element that defines a martyr is the dedication of their life and death, irrespective of their circumstances, to God and faith. Despite the diverse lives and spiritual paths of martyrs, and the rigid systems that uphold and preserve their legacies, the question of intersectionality remains unavoidable in the hermeneutic analysis of their lives and teachings.

Therefore, while discussing the faces of martyrdom is undoubtedly significant and intriguing, focusing on female faces of martyrdom is essential for the broader religious and philosophical discourse. Canonical traditions and established hierarchies are conditions for the sociological and historical endurance of a religion. Similarly, auxiliary aspects such as legends, allegories, teachings, and interpretations are crucial for preserving gnosis in challenging times. In contemporary society, addressing the role of women priests has transcended mere inclusivity in religious discourse to become a matter of sustaining the social capital of religion.

Historically, the role of women in the religious traditions of Christianity and Islam has been approached prescriptively—repeatedly thematized by religious authorities through an infantilizing lens. Despite the efforts of individual theologians to validate women as religious and spiritual subjects through alternative interpretations of religious texts and traditions, the role and duties of women within monotheistic religions have remained confined to elementary rules of conduct and generalized feminine teleology, leaving little room for discussion, even among women themselves. Consequently, women priests often preserved their unique teachings and revelations within the mystical realm—a direct relationship with God and spirit.

Authentic female spirituality historically sought refuge in mysticism and esoteric approaches to belief and worship. Women priests pursued more alternative practices and freer forms of divine address, striving to minimize the usurpation of existing patriarchal religious structures and hierarchies.

One such priestess, Rabia al-Adawiyya, was discussed by Prof. Husanović during her presentation. A Sufi woman, spiritual teacher, and historical figure from Basra, Rabia al-Adawiyya left a significant mark on Islamic mysticism. Prof. Husanović explored the metanarrative of Rabia al-Adawiyya’s life and teachings, touching upon the tropes (Greek: τρόπος: way, turn; figure of speech involving a change in meaning) used to characterize this priestess. Much more has been written about Rabia al-Adawiyya than she herself documented about her spiritual journey. Her role in Sufism has been portrayed through various tropes: as a spiritual teacher, a lover of God, an ascetic, and a Sufi woman.

Prof. Demiragić, on the other hand, shared the story of St. Kumernisa, a Portuguese martyr reputedly endowed with a beard by God to avoid an unwanted marriage. While the historical existence of St. Kumernisa remains unverified, her figure has inspired generations of Christians and other believers through oral and written narratives. Whether depicted in Olga Tokarczuk’s writings, the Brothers Grimm’s tales, or the icon in Velika Mlaka, St. Kumernisa embodies the amalgamation of all her representations, legends, and stories.

These two examples—St. Kumernisa and Rabia al-Adawiyya—regardless of the details of their lives and the accuracy of historical data about them, share a similar fate within patriarchal structures of monotheistic religions. Their biographies, like those of countless women clergy, have lost their narrative and hagiographic integrity over time. The original intent of preserving their stories often results in a glorified form of marginalization.

The sanctification of individuals, whether male or female, typically involves mystification, mythologizing, and conceptualization of their lives and miracles. This poeticizing, particularly in the context of female spiritual figures, often leads to their objectification. A holy person, especially a holy woman, becomes a symbol and an icon, an object of worship and admiration, but also an object in itself. The historical mystification of female priests shifts them from being individuals with integrity and authority to transcendent, often fictional, entities. From the outset, the recording or creation of a priestess’s narrative does not consider the canonization of her practices or teachings—she is relegated to an alternative topos within discourse and tradition.

Although female spirituality within monotheistic religions has found some autonomy in mysticism, it appears that mysticism itself has historically failed women. Mysticism, as a religious and spiritual category, remains trapped within a patriarchal framework. Mystical events, figures, and teachings are scrutinized, evaluated, and categorized within religious tradition. Historically, the negation of a person’s mystical practice or spiritual path by patriarchal religious authorities results in rejection and the designation of heresy. If a priestess or mystic does not conform to prescribed criteria, she and her followers are often marginalized and silenced. This raises questions about what constitutes success in such a system. The affirmation of a priestess as a saint or spiritual figure within tradition contributes to the overall positioning of women in religious history, yet it remains a product of patriarchal valuation.

As Prof. Husanović noted, Sufi women are neither desired nor rejected but rendered obscure. The main objective seems to be making them harmless, as illustrated by the example of Rabia al-Adawiyya, where recorded priestesses, remembered and followed, are often relegated to “constructed saint” roles with “honorary male status.”

The panel “Female Faces of Martyrdom” served as a poignant reminder of women who have achieved sainthood, martyrdom, and ascetic status through their lives and worship. However, it also raises the question of those who have been rejected. When women’s religiosity and spirituality do not align with the patriarchal value system or fulfill a “female spiritual role,” yet do not conform to the faith that would earn them an “honorary male role”—where does such a priestess stand?

A panel like this underscores the need for feminism, theology, and feminist theology to address women clergy not merely as mythical figures inspiring us but as subjects deserving accurate historiographical research and inclusion in discourse. Most importantly, it calls for a continual examination of the patriarchal structures within monotheistic religiosity and the criteria by which women embarking on spiritual paths are judged, condemned, and categorized.

Uma Đurić

The text was created as part of the FER conference “And You, Sister, Speak!” held in Sarajevo from November 16-19, 2023. The conference was organized by the TPO Foundation and the Omiš Women’s Ecumenical Initiative.

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God began His speech by describing how He had been engaged in the creation of the world and then informed them that He was in the process of creating Adam. He then revealed an unfamiliar clay object—indeed, an object, as Adam is a passive entity in the Qur’anic verses until the climax of the narrative, with God and the heavenly inhabitants being the active participants. The great surprise followed when God declared, “…when I have fashioned him and breathed into him of My Spirit, then fall down to him in prostration.” Initially, the assembly recoiled at these words, observing Adam with great interest and skepticism. God continued decisively, “Truly! I am the One who will make a Caliph on Earth!” referring to Adam. The heavenly beings were stirred, their voices rang out, and they were shocked by the strange request and God’s decision. One angel, representing the collective voice, asked, “Will You place on it one who will cause corruption and shed blood, while we glorify You with Your praise and call You holy?” The angel skeptically and excitedly questioned, convinced that Adam did not deserve such favor or the role of governor. God responded logically, “Truly! I know what you do not know,” and then He turned to Adam, “and taught Adam the names—each of them—then presented them to the angels and said, ‘Inform Me of the names of these if you are truthful.’” The angels were bewildered and responded, “Glory be to You! We have no knowledge except what You have taught us. Truly! You are the Knowing, the Wise.” God wanted to show them and explain why He chose Adam, so He invited them to observe more closely. Everyone gathered around Adam, and God said, “…O Adam! Inform them of their names.” Adam, who until that moment had been like an earthen statue, began to speak, naming things, defining them, and creating with his words. This was a miracle; the angels were amazed and, now at peace, prostrated themselves—except for Iblis, who refused, became proud, and was thus cast out as one of the disbelievers.

Why is this story important? It holds significance for several reasons, some of which I will outline here. Primarily, it serves as a representation of women that I will use to highlight a topic that seems to have been overlooked by male theologians. At first glance, it appears to be a single Qur’anic sequence, widely known among Muslims, describing the genesis of human creation as presented in the Qur’an, with verses scattered and repeated throughout different chapters. I have explored various interpretations, but what stands out to me—and what I wish to emphasize—is the model of communication and interaction in the relationship between authority and follower.

Questioning Authority in Religion

My religious journey began with an intimate relationship with God and evolved through a blend of spiritual experiences, reflective processes, maturation, and deep study of the Qur’an. However, as a woman, this path was fraught with obstacles and challenges, leading to a critical and dialectical clash between my female experience of faith and Islamic practices, theological concepts, and societal norms that I encountered and that were imposed on me to identify myself as a believer among believers. External factors were saturated with patriarchy, male dominance, and demands for female submission, resulting in internal conflict, a personal jihad, and a quest for relief. I embraced this as a challenge, determined not to surrender passively, but to achieve true calm—a goal for every believer.

This clash involved the female experience of faith confronting androcentric—male-centric—concepts of God, creation, and societal relationships. The first response to any conflict is fear, as the battlefield is a perilous place. On one side is an awareness and faith where there is no place for injustice; on the other is the personal experience and testimony of other women, which generate doubt that must be resolved—should I trust myself and the God within me, or society and its patriarchal representation of God, specifically the religious community, its male authorities, and followers? The most straightforward way to seek answers is by asking questions. Hence, the story of the heavenly assembly is crucial. I questioned many aspects and found answers through my personal interpretation of the Qur’an, but I also sought external confirmation from religious authorities. I did not receive satisfactory answers from them, as both individuals and religious authorities—shaped by male perspectives throughout history—maintained an attitude of untouchability, prohibiting questioning and demanding blind obedience. There was no room for dialogue. This experience led me to trust in myself, as the Qur’anic story of God’s interaction with the angels illustrated. God is not untouchable; He does not demand blind obedience. He willingly engages in dialogue, provides arguments, proofs, and explanations. This exemplifies how true spiritual authority should operate, showing that knowledge and calmness require sincere questioning, constructive doubt, and critical thinking. God reassured me, whereas male authorities did not.

Realizing this, I made a divine gesture within humanity. From being a passive object—often how women, including the primordial Adam in the story, are perceived—I transformed into an active, inspired creator of ideas, unafraid to express my own experiences, interpretations, and perspectives, and to actively engage with the Qur’an. Women in religion are often seen as secondary, assigned roles of culpability, or perceived as causes of moral decline. Even when women study theology, it is often a mere reception of male-established concepts. Although sacred texts reflect the patriarchal contexts of their times, they also contain messages transcending gender, class, status, and other roles. However, due to male dominance in interpretation, egalitarian ideas have been suppressed.

A call to believers

The fundamental issue today, given our current level of humanity and human rights which we often take for granted, is religious conservatism and a resistance to change, growth, new knowledge, and development. This resistance increasingly relegates religion to the status of outdated ideological constructs. Such a stance can be particularly painful for believers who, while holding onto their faith, also recognize the necessity of knowledge and progress.

It seems that women are particularly attuned to and embody this spirit. Concurrent with the prevailing androcentric religious and theological discourse, feminist theology is emerging. Unlike traditional hierarchical models of superiority and dominance, feminist theology seeks cooperation, solidarity, and egalitarianism. Its goal is to establish a common foundation where femininity is neither subordinated to masculinity nor vice versa.

A notable example of this practice is the FER school created by women—a space where diverse perspectives are freely explored and understood, and where learning expands beyond previous boundaries. Conversely, entrenched indoctrination often hinders women from engaging in such projects and developing their own ideas. When confronted with cognitive dissonance, women may fear their own doubts, leading them to feel like passive recipients of patriarchal religious structures rather than active participants.

This transgenerational indoctrination revives and perpetuates theological concepts that portray women and femininity as weak, negative aspects of humanity. Such beliefs are easily accepted, and doubts are often internalized, affecting women who are either in the process of overcoming fear or have already done so.

However, it is possible to be a believer, spiritual teacher, and creator of religious knowledge despite social pressures. Epistemological questions about the nature of knowledge, its value, and its creators reveal how excluded we may be and underscore the need for active contribution. Women need to start believing in themselves and in a transcendent God who surpasses gender divisions. Trust in male authorities should be conditional upon their willingness to provide valid arguments, engage in dialogue, and respect female perspectives. Notably, the God in my narrative resembles a woman in a position of authority more closely than the revered figures of traditional religious and spiritual contexts.

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